The drug adalimumab, also known as Humira, is a monoclonal antibody drug that is primarily used to treat arthritis. Since monoclonal antibodies are produced by a single B cell clone, they are much more consistent and useful for the treatment of diseases. These are more effective than polyclonal antibodies because they only bind to one epitope which allows for the standardization of experiments. Humira is used to relieve pain from autoimmune diseases by binding to TFNa. Tumor necrosis factor alpha is believed to be involved in the inflammatory response. When Humira binds to this protein, it decreases the pain that a person experiences with an autoimmune disease.

Humira’s side effects include:

• Serious infections
• Hepatitis B infection in carriers of the virus
• Allergic reactions
• Nervous system problems
• Blood problems
• Heart failure
• Immune reactions including a lupus-like syndrome
• Liver problems
• Psoriasis

These problems primarily occur because of the way that Humira is designed to eliminate some of the pain and inflammation from autoimmune disorders. Since this medication targets TNF blockers, the immune response is suppressed. This can cause asymptomatic infections/ carriers to begin showing signs and symptoms of disease. It can also cause blood problems because the blood cells are not active to help fight infection or clot the blood in the case of an injury. Humira can also make you susceptible to other diseases and infections.

The primary diseases that may arise are tuberculosis and infections caused by viruses, fungi or bacteria that have spread throughout the body. This drug makes you more susceptible because, as described above, TNF blockers suppress the immune system. Therefore, a person with a latent TB infection could progress into active TB. Furthermore, someone who is asymptomatic for a virus, fungus, or bacteria could show signs and symptoms after taking Humira. This drug does impact the innate immune response by decreasing the cytokines that mediate the inflammatory response.

Antibodies, or immunoglobulins, are essential for host defenses. I find this extremely interesting while studying the Coronavirus and learning about different diseases because they directly help neutralize pathogens. There are five major classes of antibody molecules: IgM, IgG, IgA, IgD and IgE. If a person only has IgM antibody titers, this means that it is early in their infection because this is the first class of antibodies during the primary response. If a person has both IgM and IgG antibody titers, it likely means that they are currently fighting the infection because the IgM is still in their system. If someone has primarily an IgG antibody titer, this means that they have probably had the infection at sometime in the past. This is because there is no longer IgM present as well as the fact that IgG circulates in the blood for a long amount of time after the infection has occurred.

The antibody responses for Covid-19 are especially relevant and interesting because of their ability to reveal whether or not a person is/ has been infected by the Coronavirus. Recently, there has been the rapid release of at-home test kits. This relies on the presence of antigens in the persons respiratory tract or detection of antibodies. In the test, these antigens would bind to the antibodies on a plastic casing and indicate whether or not a person has the virus. However, these immunodiagnostic tests are not being recommended to the general public because of their inconsistency.

I also found another article to be extremely fascinating because it was not something that I expected or believe to be a “normal” response to an infection. Researchers in China found that some Coronavirus patients have very low antibody levels for Covid-19. This is concerning because it could mean that the reinfection rate is very high. “The researchers said they were surprised to find that the antibody titer value in about a third of the patients was less than 500.” This will most likely affect the testing of this virus moving forward because the antibody response may not be a great indicator if someone has recovered from the Coronavirus.

I find the idea of T cell and dendritic cell therapy to be exciting and it makes me feel extremely hopeful for the future of certain treatment options. There is a type of T cell therapy called “CAR T-cell therapy.” This is specifically for people who suffer from cancer and are seeking this type of treatment. There are two different therapy options that “use a patients own modified white blood cells to kill cancer cells.” When the blood is taken from the patient, the T cells are modified to have receptors called chimeric antigen receptors which recognize cancer better than the original T cells.

This type of therapy is a subset of immunotherapy which uses the bodies own cells to fight off disease. I find this so fascinating because researchers are modifying the human body’s incredible capabilities to fight various disease more effectively and/ or at a quicker rate. The CAR T-cells are more effective because they recognize antigens that are associated with tumor formation. These T cells replicate the correct tumor surface antigen receptors and then they are able to effectively kill the cancer cells. The development and research of these cells will be a lengthy process because they have been known to cause negative side effects, some of which are listed below.

Specifically for cancer, the treatment occurs in six different steps. First, the patients blood it taken from their body and the T cells are separated. Next, as stated above, the T cells are genetically modified to have CAR receptors. These are grown and then inserted back into the patients blood after they receive chemotherapy. Although it is unlikely, there are multiple different side effects than can occur. These include flu-like symptoms as a result of the release of cytokines (which we are learning about in class,) low white blood cell count along with low red blood cell count. The price of this therapy is very costly at around 373,000 for an infusion. This is concerning because the therapy is not very cost-effective since many patients are not cured after the first treatment. It is sad to read that the costs are so unaffordable, but hopefully with more research there will be more cost-effective treatments available for all people who would benefit from the therapy.

Wow! It is crazy that I just moved out of my dorm yesterday. It feels like I just began my sophomore year at college. I was so excited to live in a suite with six of my best friends. It is a surreal feeling that I won’t be going back to my favorite place in the world for at least four months. The hardest part is that I feel like I do not have closure on my second year at college and that I didn’t get to spend as much time with the people I care so deeply about and the place that feels like home.

Studying from home has been difficult. I enjoy being at school and being in the “study”/ hard-working environment that Carolina embodies. I love going to class and listening to my professors and I miss it much more than I could have imagined. While at home, it has been helpful for me to stick to a strict schedule to increase my productivity. I have had to prioritize my faith, fitness, and study schedule to ensure that I do not fall into laziness while I am home. Luckily, I have a very supportive family that encourages me in my school work and has been very helpful during this unexpected adjustment.

I have embraced the fact that we will not be doing back to school until August. This has enabled me to be positive during this time and focus on things that are important to me. I have started a Youtube Channel with my sisters, (something we have been wanting to do for a while,) and we have all been working out in our garage every morning together. I have enjoyed taking up other hobbies such as gardening with my mom and cooking with my younger sister- two things I really enjoy but am not able to do while at UNC. Although, in some senses, it feels like part of my sophomore year was taken from me, I know that there is a purpose in all of this chaos and that I can use this time to be a light to others and enjoy time with my family.

Herpes is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. It is especially dangerous because it can remain latent within the body allowing people to spread it without showing signs or symptoms. Scientists have been researching different ways to eradicate this viral infection because the current antiviral medications are not always effective and they cannot completely eliminate the disease. Researchers at Harvard Medical School have found a possible treatment for the Herpes Virus through, “using human fibroblast cells infected with Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV,) they have successfully used CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing to disrupt not only actively replicating virus but also the far-harder to reach dormant pools of the virus.” This is an exciting break-through because it could prevent an extremely common and consequential virus.

I find all of the possibilities of gene editing to be fascinating because this method could revolutionize treatment for viral infections. However, as of right now, there are only several ways to treat Herpes. The most common form is antiviral treatment to ease the signs and symptoms. It is also important to take care of the sores by applying cream or ice to the wounds. I realize that sometimes it is difficult to refrain from touching painful lesions, but these sores should NOT be popped because it will cause further irritation and pain in those areas.

Herpes is a very confusing virus because it can exist in an active and latent form. Most people do not realize that signs and symptoms can show up years after the disease has been transmitted to them from a previous sexual partner. Stress or a compromised immune system are among a variety of things that can cause latent Herpes to reactivate. The symptoms vary from person to person in length and severity. Although Herpes is not life-threatening, it is very important for people to remain educated about its effects on their bodies and their partners. This virus can have severe effects on children if pregnant women do not take the proper precautions.

Make sure you’re sitting down before reading this blog post because this is some scary and shocking stuff… and it’s all our faults! Antibiotic resistance is something that you may have heard about before, but it is becoming more relevant as it increases and becomes a more pertinent issue. A superbug is a bacteria that is resistant to antibiotics. The number of superbugs is growing largely due to the wrongful use of antibiotics. There are new organisms that are becoming resistant as seen by the CDC’s constantly evolving list of “urgent threats, serious threats, concerning threats, and watch list,” of different microorganisms that are superbugs or could become superbugs.

If we lost the ability to use antibiotics, well, we’re probably dead. As Professor Cramer puts it, antibiotics are “miracle drugs.” Doctors, patients, farmers, and others have taken advantage of their power and, as a result, we are in a big mess. Without them, there are very little treatment options and the duration/ consequences of previously simple infections could kill us. The emergence of antibiotic resistance is a result of many different factors, the two largest being the wrongful prescription/ use of antibiotics and agricultural use of antibiotics. If you hear anything from this blog post, DO NOT use antibiotics for a common cold or viral infection!!!! When this happens, it increases the possibility that stronger and mutant bacteria survive and are able to pass on their resistance genes to other bacteria and humans.

Bacteria are also gaining resistance due to commercial farming. Antibiotics are used in the agriculture industry to increase the weight and health of animals (aka to get more money.) This does not only affect animals! It has astounding affects on humans because, even if a food is stated to be “antibiotic-free” on the package, this only means that antibiotics were not found in its system at the time of sale. This implicates that the antibiotics could have been used for the animals entire lifespan, yet they weren’t given to them towards the end so that it would be “antibiotic-free” and more preferable at the grocery store. When humans consume these foods, they are also consuming the trace amounts of antibiotics in the meat, eggs, etc. Even scarier, crops are also affected by the antibiotics given to livestock because the manure (which contains antibiotics from the feces) is used to grow them.

Shigella sonnei is an example of an antibiotic resistant bacteria. This disease causes fever, dysentery, vomiting, etc. Through scientific studies, it has been confirmed that Shigella can become resistant through innate, acquired, or adaptive mechanisms. More specifically, it utilizes efflux pumps to remove the antibiotics as well as changes the target receptors so the antibiotics cannot bind. The antibiotics for S.sonnei are extremely important because they prevent death along with the prevalence of the illness.

Vaccines are a relevant topic in the world with the “anti-vax” movement and other vaccine-related controversies. As a microbiology student, I have just begun to realize how important they actually are for individual and community health. If people are not willing to get themselves or their children vaccinated, they should at least be aware of the repercussions that it could have on the entire population. Herd immunity is when a certain number of people are vaccinated in the population to prevent others from being infected (because they are not able to be a host.) This especially protects the young, elderly, and immunocompromised. Contrary to some beliefs, vaccines rarely have side effects and they are normally not able to infect a person with the illness/ disease that is being injected.

There are two major classes of vaccines: attenuated and inactivated. In an attenuated vaccine, the pathogen is weakened so that it cannot cause a full-blown disease. It is able to replicate which induces life-long immunity whereas inactivated vaccines are unable to replicate. Boosters are commonly needed in inactivated vaccines because they do not cause infections/ produce lasting antibodies in the host.

Polio, a life-threatening viral disease, has two forms of the vaccination: an IPV (or inactivated virus,) and an OPV, (or attenuated virus.) Although the IPV has helped lower the rates of infection, the OPV has evident advantages because it allows for better immunity since the pill is taken orally and replicates in the mucosa of the throat and intestinal tract. However, one significant disadvantage is that it can sometimes become virulent within the host. Because of this, the US adopted a safer way to administer the vaccines by injecting children with IPV and then OPV. Polio has still not been globally eradicated, but much is being done within the world to achieve this goal.

2019 was a very eventful year in regards to the poliovirus. Two of the three wild-type strains of polio were declared to be officially eradicated in the world. However, there was an increase seen in the amount of people infected with the type-1 strain. Also, as mentioned earlier, certain countries have seen an increased amount of people contracting polio from the OPV vaccination. The worst reality of all is that humans are contributing to the upsurge of polio disease due to the anti-vax movement and false news. For example, in Pakistan, there has been an increase in infected people due to fears and conspiracies about the vaccines causing disease. They have also found that people are refusing vaccines as a political statement. I was devastated to read this news article because parents are subjecting their children and community to a very fatal disease. Furthermore, if someone traveled to Pakistan from another country and they were not vaccinated, they could risk bringing poliovirus back to other parts of the world where it has been eliminated.

Many researchers believe that the microbiome should be considered an organ within the human body. The billions of microorganisms that live inside of us and on our skin play a critical role in our health and immune response. Even crazier, scientists have new evidence that the state of our microbiota can affect our own mood and personality! The “microbiome-gut-brain axis” reveals that the health of our microbes could have drastic effects on a variety of mental health disorders. Experiments at the University of Colorado Boulder on rats has shown this connection between the gut and the brain is real and extremely significant for the future of pharmacology and mental health.

A new class of drugs called “psychobiotics” are developing because of these findings. Although there are still many studies and experiments that must be done in order to translate this evidence from animals to humans, researchers have already established that there are certain connections between depression in humans and the presence of certain types of gut bacteria. This also points to the importance of a healthy diet because there are essential nutrients needed in order for the gut bacteria to remain “happy” and deliver good signals to the brain. Furthermore, scientists have begun to wonder if this “linkage” between the microbiota and brain could be related to neurological disorders. The specific diseases that are being investigated are multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease.

So far, researchers have found that an unhealthy microbiome can cause inflammation resulting in damage of the CNS, (indicative of MS.) Through studies, the administration of certain antibiotics have reduced the symptoms and severity of MS and the other neurological disorders. In regards to Alzheimer’s disease, the significance of diet has been discussed and widely agreed upon. Unhealthy lifestyles clearly contribute to the development and progression of neurological disorders. Lastly, patients with Parkinson’s disease have been reported to have abnormal gut microbiota which could be the cause of neuronal inclusions. I find it extremely fascinating that the billions of microorganisms living inside of us could hold the key to a future without severe mental or physical disease.

The Novel Coronavirus remains in the headlines as a deadly and intense outbreak of illness in China. So far, over 800 people have been reported dead. It is likely that this is lower than the actual number because the hospitals and clinics are overwhelmed with the amount of sickness. Recently, a family of nine were infected including a twenty-four year old and ninety-one year old. This indicates that it is very likely that the novel Coronavirus can be spread via direct contact or saliva ( human-to-human.)

There is a specialized team that has departed for China in order to help with the outbreak and study the new Coronavirus. Cases have been reported in over 25 different countries with the first death of a nonnative on February 6th. The people infected and those associated have been put into quarantine in order to control the spread of the virus. Because of this, the number of poeple with the illness has decreased. People are also being advised to stay away from China and/or anyone who has been there within the past two weeks.

Since the Coronavirus is an enveloped virus, the best way to prevent the disease from spreading is through hand washing and “NOT TOUCHING YOUR FACE.” – Professor Cramer. It is important for people to “self-isolate” if they have been to mainland China or been exposed to the Coronavirus. This is because there is evidence that people become contagious before they realize they are infected. Furthermore, although the virus was believed to initially be transmitted from animal to human, it is now believed that the virus can be spread from human to human. This could be indicative of an antigenic shift in the virus.

The flu virus is in full swing for the 2019-2020 season. Although I have gotten my flu shot, I am still paranoid because many of my friends that received the vaccination still contracted the virus. According to the CDC, certain components of this years flu vaccine are similar to the 2018-2019 strain. Because the influenza virus is constantly mutating due to antigenic shift, scientists have to make new vaccines based on predictions of how the flu will change for the upcoming season. At this point, the CDC has reported that the vaccines seem to be antigenically similar to the current influenza virus.

The vaccines have reduced the likelihood that people will get the flu by 50%. In addition, the flu is less severe if contacted by someone who has received the vaccine. This should be a strong motivating factor for people to receive their flu shots because, although it might not completely eliminate the chances that you get the flu, it will lessen the signs and symptoms of the illness. According to the Mayo Clinic, this years flu shot protects against several of the influenza viruses. The vaccinations are especially important for people who are pregnant, young, or elderly.

While the flu vaccine is offered beginning in early August, it is recommended to get it around the month of October. However, if you waited to get the flu vaccination, “better late than never is true for the flu shot, too.” Some people fear that the flu shot will actually give them the flu. These are completely false assumptions because the flu shot is an inactivated virus. Although it may give someone slight signs/ symptoms of the flu, they have not actually contacted the virus. If this is not enough reason to get the flu shot, about “10,000 Americans have died, including more than 60 children,” from the virus this season.